DALL-E: Text-to-Image generation - Explained!

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DALL-E: Text-to-Image generation - Explained!

CodeEmporium 27.04.2026 450 просмотров 22 лайков

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In this video, we take a look at a DALL-E for text-to-image generation. What is it? Why do we have it? How does it look? ABOUT ME ⭕ Subscribe: https://www.youtube.com/c/CodeEmporium?sub_confirmation=1 📚 Medium Blog: https://medium.com/@dataemporium 💻 Github: https://github.com/ajhalthor 👔 LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/ajay-halthor-477974bb/ RESOURCES [1 📚] Slides: https://link.excalidraw.com/p/readonly/NXtiUh19HjH4BuC2IQ6V [2 📚] DALL-E main paper: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2102.12092 [3 📚] DALL-E blog page: https://openai.com/index/dall-e/ [4 📚] Evolution of auto encoders: https://youtu.be/XyWNmHZi1oA?si=0X5iE2FKfToDaRNM [5 📚] Colab notebook I put together to understand the gumbel distribution, gumbel max trick and Gumbel Softmax Relaxation: https://colab.research.google.com/drive/1KSKB3AIUzyMnpym8HeSVZCxOtzS-DI9u#scrollTo=1af4a395 [6 📚] Nice mathematical proof to show gumbel max trick: [https://github.com/priyammaz/PyTorch-Adventures/blob/main/PyTorch for Generation/AutoEncoders/Intro to AutoEncoders/gumbel_softmax_quantizer.ipynb](https://github.com/priyammaz/PyTorch-Adventures/blob/main/PyTorch%20for%20Generation/AutoEncoders/Intro%20to%20AutoEncoders/gumbel_softmax_quantizer.ipynb) [7 📚] Attention is all you need paper: https://arxiv.org/pdf/1706.03762 [8 📚] Image is worth 16 x 16 words paper: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2010.11929 [9 📚] Improving generative language understanding paper: https://cdn.openai.com/research-covers/language-unsupervised/language_understanding_paper.pdf [10 📚] Learning Bounded Context-Free-Grammar via LSTM and the Transformer: Difference and Explanations paper: https://arxiv.org/pdf/2112.09174 [11 📚] DALL-E architecture code: https://github.com/openai/DALL-E/blob/master/dall_e/encoder.py PLAYLISTS FROM MY CHANNEL ⭕ Reinforcement Learning: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd9kS--NgVz0EPNyEmygV1Ha&si=AuThDZJwG19cgTA8 Natural Language Processing: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd_bzXUpzKMKA3liq2kj6LfE&si=LsVy8RDPu8jeO-cc ⭕ Transformers from Scratch: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd_bzXUpzKMKA3liq2kj6LfE ⭕ ChatGPT Playlist: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd9coYT6XsTraTBo4pL1j4HJ ⭕ Convolutional Neural Networks: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd9U0XHz62Lw6EgIMkQpfz74 ⭕ The Math You Should Know : https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd-_5sGLnbgE8Poer1Xjzz4h ⭕ Probability Theory for Machine Learning: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd9bPcq0fj91Jgk_-h1H_W3V ⭕ Coding Machine Learning: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLTl9hO2Oobd82vcsOnvCNzxrZOlrz3RiD MATH COURSES (7 day free trial) 📕 Mathematics for Machine Learning: https://imp.i384100.net/MathML 📕 Calculus: https://imp.i384100.net/Calculus 📕 Statistics for Data Science: https://imp.i384100.net/AdvancedStatistics 📕 Bayesian Statistics: https://imp.i384100.net/BayesianStatistics 📕 Linear Algebra: https://imp.i384100.net/LinearAlgebra 📕 Probability: https://imp.i384100.net/Probability OTHER RELATED COURSES (7 day free trial) 📕 ⭐ Deep Learning Specialization: https://imp.i384100.net/Deep-Learning 📕 Python for Everybody: https://imp.i384100.net/python 📕 MLOps Course: https://imp.i384100.net/MLOps 📕 Natural Language Processing (NLP): https://imp.i384100.net/NLP 📕 Machine Learning in Production: https://imp.i384100.net/MLProduction 📕 Data Science Specialization: https://imp.i384100.net/DataScience 📕 Tensorflow: https://imp.i384100.net/Tensorflow CHAPTERS 00:00 What is DALL-E? 00:33 Why DALL-E with historical context 03:35 Components of DALL-E: dVAE and GPT 04:39 Stage 1: discrete VAE training 08:00 Stage 2: GPT training 11:38 Inference 13:36 dVAE encoder 15:58 dVAE image tokenizer 17:33 dVAE decoder 18:14 dVAE loss 20:56 Gumbel Distribution 23:20 Gumbel Max Trick 27:27 Gumbel Softmax Relaxation 29:20 Quiz Time 30:17 Summary

Оглавление (15 сегментов)

What is DALL-E?

Greetings fellow learners. In this video, we are going to talk about Dolly, what it is, why it exists, and exactly how it works internally. So, I hope you're ready. So, what is Dolly? It's a foundation model for text to image generation. And when I say foundation model, I mean it is a transformer style model that is trained on a lot of data that can further be tuned and hence acts as a foundation.

Why DALL-E with historical context

foundation. Now why do we have dolly? And in order to understand this, I'm going to go back way to 2017 with the creation of this transformer architecture as a sequencetose sequence architecture for language translation. And when I say sequence to sequence, the input to this transformer is going to be a sequence of text tokens and the output is also a sequence of text tokens. Now 2018 onwards, we have large language models or LLMs that were used for other NLP tasks. And some of the earlier versions of these language models were GPT and BERT. And as far as performance is concerned, they performed better than the state-of-the-art long short-term memory cells which were the state-of-the-art for sequence to sequence models. And the reason for transformers succeeding here was because of their attention mechanism. It made them much better for preserving long-term dependencies. [clears throat] Now around the same time images were also passed as a sequence of tokens to transformer style architectures. So this here is for example a vision transformer which would take an image split it up into a bunch of patches and we would embed this into vectors and process it through this transformer. And in this case it was passed as a sequence of tokens where the sequence of tokens were like image patches here. And this type of network was actually quite successful compared to the state-of-the-art for vision models which was convolution networks provided that we had massive amounts of data. For more modest amounts of data, the convolution architecture was still dominant. But with lots of data with these larger colorful circles, it shows that the transformer architecture became more dominant. And this gray area shows the performance of convolution architectures. So in 2021, researchers at OpenAI basically asked, can we formulate the text to image generation as a sequence to sequence problem? Now it turns out we can and the eventual solution that came up was Dolli. And so I hope the why of Dollali and how it came about makes more sense.

Components of DALL-E: dVAE and GPT

Now that we know the what and why of Dollali, we are going to talk about exactly how Dollali works in three passes. So I thought in the first pass I'm just going to walk through a high-level training and inference of how the entire thing works mechanically. In the second and third passes, we're going to dive into more and more detail about each individual component. So let's get to it. So for pass one, highle training, Dolly has two main components. It has a discrete variational autoenccoder and then a generative pre-train transformer. And so the training itself is done in two stages. We first train the discrete variational autoenccoder to generate image tokens from images and then we will train GPT to take text and auto reagively that is one after the other we're going to generate image tokens. So let's take a look at these two stages.

Stage 1: discrete VAE training

stages. So in stage one to begin it let's say that we have an image. This could be like 256 cross 3. This image is passed into a DVAE encoder. So um some characteristic about these variational autoenccoders is that they have an encoder and then a decoder. So we'll take an image, pass it through an encoder which is a convolution neural network and this will give us a grid of logets. lojits that correspond to numbers between negative infinity and positive infinity. Now this tensor is then passed into a tokenizer. So essentially this 32 + 32 cross I have 8,192 over here. The reason it's this number is because that is going to be the size of our image embedding codebook vocabulary. So what that means is we have a bunch of these learnable vectors over here. Each of them are like dimensions and there's 8,192 of them. Now the idea here is that these learnable vectors should learn about general properties of these training images and they'll learn during the back propagation phase. So what's going to happen here is that we're going to have a bunch of logets and the depth is going to constitute the vocabulary here. The tokenizer is going to be responsible for essentially in each of these positions just choosing one of those positions which corresponds to one of these vectors and then we are just going to use that as a token. I know these numbers are a little bit small but you can see this first number says 1,249. That's basically saying oh choose the 1,249th vector from this code book over here. So, and these correspond to discrete tokens and we have 32 + 32 of them which is 1,024. Next, what we're going to do is, you know, from this index, we're actually going to grab the corresponding D-dimensional vectors in every single position. So, this will be a grid of discrete vectors. Then we're going to pass this into the decoder of our variational autoenccoder which is a convolution neural network in order to generate an image or reconstruct an image here. And then we're going to compute our loss which has two components. It is a reconstruction loss as well as a regularization loss. The reconstruction loss is going to ensure that the image is reconstructed correctly. And the regularization loss is going to ensure that the image embeddings will not memorize image details. And then we have a loss which allows us to now learn this entire network via back propagation including these codebook vectors. So I hope the high-level DVAE training makes sense.

Stage 2: GPT training

Now that we have a trained DVAE, we are going to let's say just take those components and I've made them green just to indicate that they're already trained and we don't need to learn anymore. So gradients won't be propagating here. But we take these, you know, the DVAE encoder, the tokenizer that we use for images. We're going to basically take, you know, an image, create the grid of lojits, tokenize them. So image, two tokens. We have now gotten image tokens. And now what we're going to do is train our GPT. So we're going to take our text. We're going to pass it through our text tokenizer. So this is going to have, you know, basically, you know, these can be tokenized. And when they're tokenized, it'll be a part of a 16,384 sized vocabulary. And each of these text codebook vectors are eventually also going to be learned during the back propagation phase. So what's going to happen is that we'll take this we're going to basically map it to um you know one of these vectors effectively. So there's going to be 256 tokens. You know while this might be just 15 tokens, we're going to add a bunch of padding to make it 256 tokens. And then what we're going to do is concatenate the 256 tokens over here along with the 1,024 tokens from the DVAE in order to get a 1,280 tokens over here. So that they're just like indices effectively. And then what we're going to do is get their corresponding embeddings. So they're D-dimensional matrices. And we can use that by referencing the code books. And then we will pass these 1,800 vectors into GPT over here. And what's very interesting at this point is that we have treated text. This consists of both text vectors as well as image vectors. And all of them are just considered as tokens, just tokens to GPT. They're not really considered distinct. Now once passed to GPT it's going to just predict what the next token would be. Now in during the training phase all of this is happening in parallel and not auto reggressively. So we'll have parallel predictions of probability distributions of all image and text tokens. And you can see that it'll be 1,280 probability distributions where each distribution will have the number of text possible vocabulary tokens and the number of image tokens. That's 8,000 plus like 16,000. That's why you get this number. And then what we can do is also compute this ground truth which is just by shifting the tokens down by one so that we know the ground truth in order to compute the cross entropy loss. We can do it because we have a prediction and we have the ground truth. Hence we can compute a loss and then this loss can just back propagate in order to learn what this GPT is and also our tokenizer which would effectively be our like learnable code book embeddings too. They all learn during this phase. So that's stage two and hence the total training of the model. Now that we have an entire trained pipeline, we can use it for inference.

Inference

So during inference time, we only have text. So let's say we put in a text like a brown and white Charles Spaniel looking sad because they did something wrong. That's the text and we want to generate an image. So now we have our text tokenizer. It's green because it's learned. We will tokenize this into whatever this might be like 20 um 20 tokens but then we will pad it with another extra tokens like padding tokens to make it 256 tokens and then we are going to index our learned codebook vector over here in order to get 256 vectors of dimensions. Next, we will pass this all into GPT. And then we are going to now auto reggressively get image tokens. So we'll make 1,024 predictions into GPT. So we make this first prediction. We're just going to get the first image token over here. And then we're going to take this, append it to our token list that we have, gen get that embedding over here. And then we are going to now pass it into GPT to generate the second token. And repeat this until eventually we have our 1,024 image tokens. And then when you have your 1,024 image tokens, that's this part right over here, this blue part. We're going to pass all of these into now our DVAE decoder in order to generate our image. And hopefully this image should correspond to what this text is. So that's all for pass one training and inference. And I hope all of it now made sense.

dVAE encoder

All right. So for pass two, let's now dive into these individual components for this DVAE encoder over here. Starting now with just the encoder. So what is this exactly? Let's blow it up. So this is going to be a ResNet style architecture. So it's going to have a bunch of convolution activation blocks and normalization blocks along with a bunch of skip connections that allows this network to become very deep. And the specific architecture kind of looks like this over here. So we would have an image input which could be 256 cross 256 with three channels. We'd perform an initial convolution that makes it 128 channels deep. And then we're going to have a sequence of residual blocks and strided convolutions. So these residual blocks are going to be normalization, activation and a convolution operation which will preserve its shape over here. But then we will down sample because of strided convolutions. Strided convolutions essentially mean that this 4 + 4 convolution is going to skip one space every other space while performing the convolution operation. And so this will be downsampling and we perform this 1 2 3 times over here and we'll get 32 + 512. But then we will perform a pointwise convolution or a 1 + one convolution. And this is used to very cheaply just expand or contract the dimensions. And this is now going to be expanded to 8,192 channels because 8,192 is the number of image tokens that are possible in our vocabulary. So we consider it and that's kind of the DVAE encoder.

dVAE image tokenizer

Now let's talk about this tokenizer part over here. What is that and how is it implemented? Well, one way to do a tokenization is like we take our grid of logets. We can then perform a soft max across each of these, right? And then from logets will now be then converted into a probability distributions. So the sum of all of these 8,192 entries will be one. We create probability distributions and then what we can do is just sample from those distributions and we can get then token indices or just token values. So that's one way to tokenize. But the problem here is that this is a part of a neural network which needs to learn via back propagation and so this sampling operation unfortunately is not differentiable. So gradients cannot flow beyond this point. And so in order to resolve this, we use a technique called gumball softmax relaxation. And this will allow gradients to flow through the network to earlier layers. Now we're going to talk about this in pass three, but I hope you know now, at least at a high level, why it's even here. And so we have gumbble softmax relaxation.

dVAE decoder

relaxation. Now once we have our tokens and we have our let's say discrete vectors over here we want to go into the dvae decoder. So let's talk about that. Essentially it's going to be almost the exact opposite of our encoder where instead of downsampling we are upsampling. From our codebook mapping, we have 32 + 32 cross 512, right? We then have pointwise convolution followed by, you know, step up blocks of residual and transpose convolution blocks in order to get our final image back.

dVAE loss

Now, let's talk about the fourth component, which is our loss. There's two components of the loss which is a reconstruction loss and a regularization loss. So the reconstruction loss is going to ensure that the original image and the reconstruction are going to be as close to each other as possible and the loss will just quantify that difference. Now regularization loss is an interesting one. So the codebook vectors over here, these 8,192 vectors of Dimensions, they should learn general features that are shared by all images in the training set. And so we don't want any like single codebook vector to pay too much attention to just a single image. Otherwise, it will learn very specific information about an image, and that's not what we want. So mathematically this is equivalent to basically saying for each of these numbers in the 8,192dimensional vector they should be smooth and not peaky. And so regularization loss is the kale divergence between a uniform categorical distribution and the grid of logets. So a little bit more idea of what that means is we have this uniform distribution. So this is like an 8,192dimensional vector. For example, if we have logit values that looked like this, then you can see that this is going to be like super peaky because you have some values that are very high. whereas and hence it'll constitute a high regularization loss whereas these ones are more nominal and much lower and hence it's going to be a low regularization loss. And so overall the resulting objective is going to push the discrete variational autoenccoder to reconstruct the input image while ensuring each codebook image vector learns general information about images. And this makes the DVAE useful for image generation. And so we have it. If you wanted to understand more about the exact architecture, I'll link to this code for Dolly's encoder and their decoder also in the description below. So you can see it all spelled out.

Gumbel Distribution

And so now that we've talked about the past one and past two, let's now get into this gumball softmax relaxation pass three. So overall this is a method to tokenize lojits while allowing gradients to flow during back propagation. So we have a grid of lojits pass it through here. This will give us tokens and gradients can flow through it. So in order to talk about exactly this we need to first talk about this idea of a gumball distribution. The Gumble distribution is a distribution of extreme values maxima or minima and its probability density function looks like this. So the best way that I can explain this is with a very simple example. Let's say that you record temperatures every week for many weeks. So in week one we have daily temperatures recorded in centigrade. Week two we have the same thing. week three and so on for many hundreds or thousands of weeks. Now we're going to take the max temperature of every week and then we'll plot a histogram of this. So that's going to be this purple diagram over here. That would be a histogram. And in this case I've just normalized that histogram so that its center becomes zero. And interestingly enough, the shape of this diagram, you can actually fit a gumball distribution to it. And by this, what we mean is that we can find a location mu and a scale beta parameters that best actually fit this temperature data. And when location is zero and scale is one, it's going to reduce to this form which is the standard gumball distribution. And so I hope this kind of makes sense. And the reason why we're even thinking about it into this context is because we want to fit the 8,192 class distribution to select a high lowit token which simulates a sampling operation. So that's why we're even dealing with this extreme value theory here.

Gumbel Max Trick

Now that we understand the gumball distribution, let's take a look at the gumball max trick. So we mentioned that sampling is not a differentiable operation and so we can't just use softmax plus sampling. But the softmax and sampling can actually be replaced exactly with the following setup. And that setup is let's say you have an image you pass it into your discrete variational autoenccoder we're going to get logets the grid of logets over here. Now what we're going to do is from the gumball distribution the standard gumball distribution mu0 beta 1 sample from there you're going to get a grid of gumball noise. So each of these values is going to be stamp sampled from a standard gumball distribution. And then we can add these two together, add this to the logets to get a grid of perturbed logets with gumball noise. And then what we can do is for each of these situations, each of these 8,192 dimensional vectors, we're going to take an arg max. So max is just taking the maximum value. Arg max is taking the index corresponding to that maximum value. And this can help us give the token itself. Now this reparameterization is known as the gumball max trick and I said that this reparameterization is exact because you can actually have a mathematical proof where we are proving exactly that the transformation that I mentioned is true. And I'm just going to link to all of this math for you to go over down in the description below. But if you do go through it, you will see that there is a mathematical equivalence between the two. But in order to show you this a little bit more clearly, I came up with a simulation. So let's take a look at that. So here is a simulation where we have loit instead of like the 8,192, we have just three logets and the loget values are 1 2 and 0. 5. Now from this we can create a softmax distribution. and I just pass it to a softmax. And this is our distribution over here. And so you can see the sum is going to be a probabilities. You know, they're all probabilities. So sum is one. Now, if I sampled from this softmax distribution over here like 10,000 times or so, I'm going to and then I'll just like calculate the frequencies of each of the tokens that I sampled from. 0 1 2 whatever it is. um you're going to actually get a frequency that corresponds to this distribution and that's the gray plot over here. So this is our soft max distribution but sampling using the gumball max trick we are actually going to get the pink distribution over here. And just to show you that how it's implemented over here you can see way at the top we have our tensor of logets. We perform a softmax over here. We then do sampling 10,000 times. We'll do like 10,000 simulations of just sampling. And that's how the gray plot is plotted. And then we just do our counts. But for that second method for gumball distribution, we basically take our standard gumball distribution of zero and one. So it's a standard gumble distribution. We perturb our logets by adding it to the logets. Take an arg max and just keep doing this 1,000 times. And then you can just, you know, get the frequency distribution of them. You'll get the pink graph. And so you can see the equivalence between the two computationally. So a softmax plus sampling can be replaced with the gumball perturbed logets and argmax. That is the gumball max trick. But the problem here is that this argmax operation is still not differentiable. So that means that gradient still cannot pass through it.

Gumbel Softmax Relaxation

So what we can do though is approximate it and we approximate it using a temperaturecaled softmax that looks like this. Now on its own this function is differentiable. But I replace the solid arrow with a dashed arrow over here because even here we have to sample from softmax in order to get our tokens. And when you have to sample, we cannot take derivatives. It's still not differentiable. But do we still have to actually do the sampling in this case? Well, the answer is actually that's not really true in practice. We don't have to do it. Now, one way that we can kind of get around this problem is through a straight through estimation technique. So that means that during the forward pass, we actually just use an argmax operation over here to actually get the grid of tokens and hence generate the loss. But in the backward direction, we're just going to pretend like we use the temperature scaled softmax all along. So we'll put it back in here, but it's going to be used for computing gradients. Now this is a straightthrough estimation technique and I believe one caveat here is that dolly internally may use a slightly different technique but just to prevent all confusion. I think this is also a very valid thing that many practitioners do in practice. And so I hope all of this now makes sense and enriches your understanding of the entire DVAE plus GPT and hence Dolly.

Quiz Time

Quiz time. Have you been paying attention? Let's quiz you to find out what was the key benefit of using DVAE in Dolly. A it increases image resolution. B. It removed the reconstruction loss. C, it created a learned image vocabulary, or D, it makes training fully supervised. I'll give you a few seconds to answer this question. The correct option is C. Did you get it right? Please leave your reasoning down in the comments below and let's have a discussion. And at this point, if you think I deserve it, please consider giving this video a like because it will help me out a lot. And that's going to do it for quiz time. But before we go, let's generate a summary.

Summary

In this video, we took a look at Dolly, which is a foundation model for text to image generation. We also saw how open AI researchers formulated this text to image generation as a sequence to sequence problem. We took a look at how training is done in two passes where first we train the discrete variational autoenccoder and then we are going to train the components for GPT. And once both are trained, we can then use this GPT for auto reggressive generation of the image token 1,024 times to eventually get the image we need. And then what we did was we expanded on each of what these components are. So this DVA encoder is a convolution network. This tokenizer is a uses gumball softmax relaxation to pro to ensure that the gradients produced in the backward direction are differentiable but it could still create some grid of tokens in the forward direction. And this decoder is another convolution network similar to the encoder. We also saw the nature of the loss which pushes the VAE to reconstruct the image input while ensuring the codebook vectors learn general information about images. And that's kind of all that we have today. So I hope everything here makes a lot of sense. I know this is a lot of information, but I'm going to be linking to all the code, the papers, and other resources down in the description below. And I hope this video can be used as kind of a supplement to help you tie a lot of these concepts together as you are navigating this like very vast topic. So, thank you all so much for watching and I will see you in another one. Take care.

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